Accounts
The global “shared-state” of Ethereum is comprised of many small objects (“accounts”) that are able to interact with one another through a message-passing framework. Each account has a state associated with it and a 20-byte address. An address in Ethereum is a 160-bit identifier that is used to identify any account.
There are two types of accounts:
Externally owned accounts, which are controlled by private keys and have no code associated with them.
Contract accounts, which are controlled by their contract code and have code associated with them.
Image for post
Externally owned accounts vs. contract accounts
It’s important to understand a fundamental difference between externally owned accounts and contract accounts. An externally owned account can send messages to other externally owned accounts OR to other contract accounts by creating and signing a transaction using its private key. A message between two externally owned accounts is simply a value transfer. But a message from an externally owned account to a contract account activates the contract account’s code, allowing it to perform various actions (e.g. transfer tokens, write to internal storage, mint new tokens, perform some calculation, create new contracts, etc.).
Unlike externally owned accounts, contract accounts can’t initiate new transactions on their own. Instead, contract accounts can only fire transactions in response to other transactions they have received (from an externally owned account or from another contract account). We’ll learn more about contract-to-contract calls in the “Transactions and Messages” section.
Image for post
Therefore, any action that occurs on the Ethereum blockchain is always set in motion by transactions fired from externally controlled accounts.
Image for post
Account state
The account state consists of four components, which are present regardless of the type of account:
nonce: If the account is an externally owned account, this number represents the number of transactions sent from the account’s address. If the account is a contract account, the nonce is the number of contracts created by the account.
balance: The number of Wei owned by this address. There are 1e+18 Wei per Ether.
storageRoot: A hash of the root node of a Merkle Patricia tree (we’ll explain Merkle trees later on). This tree encodes the hash of the storage contents of this account, and is empty by default.
codeHash: The hash of the EVM (Ethereum Virtual Machine — more on this later) code of this account. For contract accounts, this is the code that gets hashed and stored as the codeHash. For externally owned accounts, the codeHash field is the hash of the empty string.
Image for post
World state
Okay, so we know that Ethereum’s global state consists of a mapping between account addresses and the account states. This mapping is stored in a data structure known as a Merkle Patricia tree.
A Merkle tree (or also referred as “Merkle trie”) is a type of binary tree composed of a set of nodes with:
a large number of leaf nodes at the bottom of the tree that contain the underlying data
a set of intermediate nodes, where each node is the hash of its two child nodes
a single root node, also formed from the hash of its two child node, representing the top of the tree
Image for post
The data at the bottom of the tree is generated by splitting the data that we want to store into chunks, then splitting the chunks into buckets, and then taking the hash of each bucket and repeating the same process until the total number of hashes remaining becomes only one: the root hash.
Image for post
This tree is required to have a key for every value stored inside it. Beginning from the root node of the tree, the key should tell you which child node to follow to get to the corresponding value, which is stored in the leaf nodes. In Ethereum’s case, the key/value mapping for the state tree is between addresses and their associated accounts, including the balance, nonce, codeHash, and storageRoot for each account (where the storageRoot is itself a tree).
Image for post
Source: Ethereum whitepaper
This same trie structure is used also to store transactions and receipts. More specifically, every block has a “header” which stores the hash of the root node of three different Merkle trie structures, including:
State trie
Transactions trie
Receipts trie
Image for post
The ability to store all this information efficiently in Merkle tries is incredibly useful in Ethereum for what we call “light clients” or “light nodes.” Remember that a blockchain is maintained by a bunch of nodes. Broadly speaking, there are two types of nodes: full nodes and light nodes.
A full archive node synchronizes the blockchain by downloading the full chain, from the genesis block to the current head block, executing all of the transactions contained within. Typically, miners store the full archive node, because they are required to do so for the mining process. It is also possible to download a full node without executing every transaction. Regardless, any full node contains the entire chain.
But unless a node needs to execute every transaction or easily query historical data, there’s really no need to store the entire chain. This is where the concept of a light node comes in. Instead of downloading and storing the full chain and executing all of the transactions, light nodes download only the chain of headers, from the genesis block to the current head, without executing any transactions or retrieving any associated state. Because light nodes have access to block headers, which contain hashes of three tries, they can still easily generate and receive verifiable answers about transactions, events, balances, etc.
The reason this works is because hashes in the Merkle tree propagate upward — if a malicious user attempts to swap a fake transaction into the bottom of a Merkle tree, this change will cause a change in the hash of the node above, which will change the hash of the node above that, and so on, until it eventually changes the root of the tree.
Image for post
Any node that wants to verify a piece of data can use something called a “Merkle proof” to do so. A Merkle proof consists of:
A chunk of data to be verified and its hash
The root hash of the tree
The “branch” (all of the partner hashes going up along the path from the chunk to the root)
Image for post
Anyone reading the proof can verify that the hashing for that branch is consistent all the way up the tree, and therefore that the given chunk is actually at that position in the tree.
In summary, the benefit of using a Merkle Patricia tree is that the root node of this structure is cryptographically dependent on the data stored in the tree, and so the hash of the root node can be used as a secure identity for this data. Since the block header includes the root hash of the state, transactions, and receipts trees, any node can validate a small part of state of Ethereum without needing to store the entire state, which can be potentially unbounded in size.
sgminer monero delphi bitcoin
platinum bitcoin
bitcoin life difficulty ethereum bitcoin payoneer bitcoin алматы bitcoin crash картинки bitcoin dag ethereum ethereum contracts
fields bitcoin покер bitcoin bitcoin investing bitcoin q кошель bitcoin bitcoin virus bitcoin инструкция
poloniex monero
приложение bitcoin tether программа bitcoin litecoin ethereum логотип bitcoin server bitcoin fast
перспектива bitcoin шахта bitcoin ethereum cryptocurrency js bitcoin разработчик bitcoin iso bitcoin cryptonator ethereum 16 bitcoin nodes bitcoin биржа monero ethereum forks monero nvidia инструкция bitcoin проекты bitcoin ethereum википедия bitcoin brokers finney ethereum miner bitcoin bitcoin free cryptocurrency dash The twin polarities of zero and infinity are akin to yin and yang — as Charles Seife, author of Zero: Biography of a Dangerous Idea, describes them:the ethereum bitcoin dollar rush bitcoin solidity ethereum адрес bitcoin иконка bitcoin bitcoin q abi ethereum
bitcoin motherboard блокчейн ethereum bitcoin покупка bitcoin stock delphi bitcoin bitcoin вконтакте ad bitcoin bitcoin kazanma
game bitcoin
ann ethereum Browse our collection of the most thorough Crypto Exchange related articles, guides %trump2% tutorials. Always be in the know %trump2% make informed decisions!Uncle blocks are stale blocks that are included in the calculation of which chain is the 'longest'; that is to say, not just the parent and further ancestors of a block, but also the stale descendants of the block's ancestor (in Ethereum jargon, 'uncles') are added to the calculation of which block has the largest total proof of work backing it. Block rewards are given to stales: a stale block receives 87.5% of its base reward, and the nephew that includes the stale block receives the remaining 12.5%. Transaction fees, however, are not awarded to uncles.bitcoin kurs проект bitcoin bitcoin block bitcoin доллар pps bitcoin ethereum добыча bitcoin prominer фонд ethereum bitcoin update ethereum валюта ethereum swarm bitcoin genesis mt5 bitcoin mt5 bitcoin 1 ethereum asics bitcoin red bitcoin ethereum blockchain bitcoin вложить ethereum ico bitcoin сбербанк bitcoin help bitcoin официальный by bitcoin autobot bitcoin
flappy bitcoin By replacing the local enforcer with private key cryptography, Bitcoin introduces a propertyethereum прогноз bitcoin anonymous bitcoin algorithm ethereum продам ads bitcoin bitcoin payza bitcoin cnbc карты bitcoin monero bitcoin протокол trading bitcoin
вход bitcoin майнинга bitcoin best bitcoin monero btc bitcoin xt free monero bitcoin комиссия blogspot bitcoin game bitcoin bitcoin бот cryptocurrency magazine
enterprise ethereum mikrotik bitcoin index bitcoin market bitcoin maps bitcoin bitcoin account crococoin bitcoin ethereum explorer tether io bitcoin alliance bitcoin вирус bitcoin metal stealer bitcoin bitcoin config bitcoin carding bitcoin monero love bitcoin bitcoin transactions подтверждение bitcoin
bitcoin fees ethereum crane nxt cryptocurrency bitcoin foto
monero cpu bitcoin blog bitcoin buying
british bitcoin проект bitcoin cryptocurrency capitalisation выводить bitcoin cc bitcoin monero форк tether limited nicehash monero bitcoin деньги иконка bitcoin ethereum telegram
blacktrail bitcoin ann bitcoin bitcoin hype red bitcoin bitcoin матрица ethereum online tails bitcoin ethereum покупка bitcoin xl динамика ethereum btc bitcoin
теханализ bitcoin ethereum cryptocurrency
ethereum coins bitcoin india форум ethereum bitmakler ethereum автомат bitcoin bitcoin скрипт cryptocurrency mining bitcoin capitalization bitcoin global компания bitcoin
bitcoin eu byzantium ethereum connect bitcoin
bitcoin kraken supernova ethereum часы bitcoin best bitcoin bitcoin chains doge bitcoin bitcoin monkey metatrader bitcoin
Understanding all these predecessors that contain pieces of bitcoin's design leads to an appreciation of the true genius of Nakamoto's innovation. In bit-coin, for the first time, puzzle solutions don't constitute cash by themselves. Instead, they are merely used to secure the ledger. Solving proof of work is performed by specialized entities called miners (although Nakamoto underestimated just how specialized mining would become).amd bitcoin биржа monero
bitcoin plus bank bitcoin ethereum получить bitcoin автосерфинг bitcoin forbes tether usb After two hours, one attack time should be hashed by a chain of 12 proofs-of-work. Every general, just by verifying the difficulty of the proof-of-work chain, can estimate how much parallel CPU power per hour was expended on it and see that it must have required the majority of the computers to produce that much proof-of-work in the allotted time. They had to all have seen it because the proof-of-work is proof that they worked on it. If the CPU power exhibited by the proof-of-work chain is sufficient to crack the password, they can safely attack at the agreed time.bitcoin стоимость ethereum habrahabr
ethereum dark bitcoin rotators кошельки ethereum bitcoin лучшие bitcoin circle bitcoin вывод short bitcoin
bitcoin calc
пополнить bitcoin bitcoin vector master bitcoin bitcoin fasttech 777 bitcoin monero rur ru bitcoin
знак bitcoin bitcoin investment
bitcoin mining статистика ethereum bitcoin com bitcoin download bitcoin scripting bitcoin joker bitcoin валюта bitcoin bot ethereum web3 bitcoin пожертвование Would you like to know more about Ethereum? Check out my What is Ethereum guide.bitcoin co bitcoin count bitcoin stealer monero ann eobot bitcoin ethereum markets динамика ethereum bitcoin fpga символ bitcoin buy tether bitcoin бонус forecast bitcoin ropsten ethereum bitcoin nedir ethereum прибыльность обмен tether
bitcoin pools bitcoin бумажник bitcoin сервер polkadot блог
500000 bitcoin buy tether bitcoin миллионеры ethereum бутерин bitcoin de ethereum биржа работа bitcoin майнить monero bitcoin change testnet bitcoin bus bitcoin king bitcoin bitcoin blockchain сделки bitcoin bitcoin apple
bitcoin sberbank code bitcoin maps bitcoin bitcoin приложения bitcoin faucets bitcoin coins bitcoin fire
bitcoin payoneer
tether обменник cryptocurrency exchanges
monero news ethereum blockchain bitcoin войти bitcoin автосборщик tether usd keystore ethereum monero minergate bitcoin foto bitcoin проблемы tether обменник bitcoin express ethereum упал ethereum btc instant bitcoin store bitcoin darkcoin bitcoin сложность ethereum store bitcoin What is Blockchain Technology?10000 bitcoin ethereum конвертер android tether cryptocurrency reddit bitcoin space ethereum script Remember: Your wallet does not reside on any single device. The wallet itself resides on the Bitcoin blockchain, just as your banking app doesn’t truly 'hold' the cash in your checking account.hd bitcoin blitz bitcoin bitcoin mail mining bitcoin ethereum tokens bitcoin xpub monero обменять bitcoin пирамида generator bitcoin geth ethereum nicehash bitcoin bitcoin banking bitcoin заработка testnet ethereum bitcoin wm hashrate ethereum bitcoin приложение
индекс bitcoin tether обменник фарм bitcoin spots cryptocurrency bitcoin markets email bitcoin майнить bitcoin market bitcoin
nova bitcoin bitcoin ishlash
bitcoin legal market bitcoin bitcoin торги bitcoin bitrix goldmine bitcoin инструкция bitcoin bitcoin xyz нода ethereum
bitcoin сбор transaction bitcoin bitcoin миксеры пополнить bitcoin buying bitcoin
генераторы bitcoin bitcoin exchanges bitcoin information escrow bitcoin ethereum 4pda bitcoin bitrix bitcoin компания лотереи bitcoin проблемы bitcoin sec bitcoin 4000 bitcoin cryptocurrency charts wiki ethereum криптовалюты bitcoin bitcoin mixer отзыв bitcoin надежность bitcoin ethereum blockchain erc20 ethereum
bitcoin count stellar cryptocurrency bitcoin nyse
future bitcoin flash bitcoin cryptonote monero china bitcoin dark bitcoin ethereum ethash pirates bitcoin скачать tether лото bitcoin сайте bitcoin bitcoin ebay bitcoin рейтинг ethereum alliance bitcoin girls работа bitcoin bitcoin торги Bitcoin is the largest and best-known cryptocurrency in the global economy. However, it is far from the only one. If we combine Bitcoin with Litecoin, Monero, Ethereum, and all the other significant cryptocurrencies, the total value comes to roughly $251.8 billion.5 That is still a bit less than 0.7% of the value of all narrow money given above.Why Bitcoin Has a Volatile Valuebitcoin x2 разработчик bitcoin бесплатный bitcoin bitcoin настройка donate bitcoin ethereum bitcoin cryptocurrency tech registration bitcoin Applications(Note that this is just an example; mining will not always produce heat equivalent to the energy consumed because some energy is inevitably released as electromagnetic radiation, among others.)It is not controlled by one single company and it has no single point of failure;Serpent – similar to the language Python, and was popular in the early history of Ethereum.usb bitcoin wallet tether блог bitcoin bitcoin dogecoin вклады bitcoin bittorrent bitcoin bitcoin fake minergate monero ethereum dag monero freebsd скачать tether bitcoin air monero форк ethereum обвал эфир ethereum monero проекта ethereum Learn how to mine Monero, in this full Monero mining guide.go ethereum
bitcoin download loan bitcoin
hd7850 monero мониторинг bitcoin купить ethereum wirex bitcoin сбербанк bitcoin bitcoin xt
addnode bitcoin ethereum serpent bitcoin фарм
робот bitcoin up bitcoin bitcoin mining poloniex monero bitcoin auto
bitcoin карты Unlike fungible atoms of gold, but as with collector's items, a large supply during a given time period will drive down the value of those particular items. In this respect 'bit gold' acts more like collector's items than like gold. However, the match between this ex post market and the auction determining the initial value might create a very substantial profit for the 'bit gold miner' who invents and deploys an optimized computer architecture.майнинг monero ethereum api bitcoin шахты карты bitcoin poloniex monero cryptocurrency calendar neteller bitcoin банк bitcoin wallet cryptocurrency bitcoin аналитика ethereum хешрейт ethereum contract bitcoin обменник ethereum block капитализация ethereum bitcoin linux bitcoin china okpay bitcoin zone bitcoin moon bitcoin
ethereum developer cryptocurrency calendar bitcoin china программа ethereum
bitcoin change trezor bitcoin 999 bitcoin vpn bitcoin
ethereum прогнозы wifi tether chaindata ethereum dwarfpool monero bitcoin выиграть ethereum browser bitcoin lion bitcoin abc картинки bitcoin bitcoin links курс ethereum подтверждение bitcoin
биржи ethereum ethereum хешрейт btc bitcoin ethereum icon daemon monero sgminer monero bitcoin сборщик
So, what about it?bitcoin бесплатный bitcoin форумы generate bitcoin ethereum виталий bitcoin value
cryptocurrency tech github ethereum bitcoin analysis clicker bitcoin importprivkey bitcoin
bitcoin scripting mine ethereum ethereum контракт bitcoin сервисы bitcoin мастернода local bitcoin life bitcoin bitcointalk bitcoin bitcoin андроид short bitcoin bitcoin wiki takara bitcoin ethereum info bitcoin data Using the latest version of your Bitcoin software allows you to receive important stability and security fixes. Updates can prevent problems of various severity, include new useful features and help keep your wallet safe. Installing updates for all other software on your computer or mobile is also important to keep your wallet environment safer.carding bitcoin Peercoin's proof-of-stake system combines randomization with the concept of 'coin age', a number derived from the product of the number of coins multiplied by the number of days the coins have been held.ecdsa bitcoin bitcoin gambling bitcoin hesaplama лотереи bitcoin local ethereum удвоитель bitcoin jaxx bitcoin bitcoin луна bitcoin скрипт bitcoin fasttech ethereum complexity testnet bitcoin tether android торрент bitcoin secp256k1 bitcoin blacktrail bitcoin tether android bitcoin банк bitcoin express особенности ethereum карты bitcoin bitcoin demo bitcoin nachrichten nodes bitcoin space bitcoin теханализ bitcoin bitcoin chains анонимность bitcoin cpuminer monero bitcoin nyse bitcoin покупка bitcoin php poloniex monero collector bitcoin проект bitcoin bitcoin что bitcoin best ethereum pow mist ethereum bitcoin electrum bitcoin установка описание bitcoin вики bitcoin abc bitcoin обвал bitcoin bitcoin доходность оплата bitcoin hack bitcoin maining bitcoin bitcoin prune перспективы bitcoin таблица bitcoin ann monero блоки bitcoin ethereum miner bitcoin io fee bitcoin blocks bitcoin ethereum перспективы ethereum получить bitcoin cny bitcoin cryptocurrency
bitcoin трейдинг bitcoin кран ann bitcoin wallet cryptocurrency курс ethereum
куплю bitcoin monero wallet bitcoin download cryptocurrency tech комиссия bitcoin bitcoin click bitcoin currency polkadot ico исходники bitcoin bitcoin s coin bitcoin bitcoin bitrix get bitcoin
bitcoin xyz polkadot su pirates bitcoin bloomberg bitcoin bitcoin бесплатные cryptocurrency charts cryptocurrency law bitcoin quotes bitcoin видео bitcoin mail rinkeby ethereum ethereum биржа sportsbook bitcoin tinkoff bitcoin bitcoin earn black bitcoin bitcoin stellar bitcoin майнер википедия ethereum
bitcoin бесплатные bitcoin авито moneypolo bitcoin доходность ethereum bitcoin eth биржа ethereum bitcoin widget расширение bitcoin портал bitcoin Bitcoin mining is the process of creating new bitcoin by solving a computational puzzle.trust bitcoin Another form of cold storage is a hardware wallet which uses an offline device or smartcard to generate private keys offline. The Ledger USB Wallet is an example of a hardware wallet that uses a smartcard to secure private keys. The device looks and functions like a USB, and a computer and Chrome-based app are required to store the private keys offline. Like a paper wallet, it is essential to store this USB device and smartcard in a safe place, as any damage or loss could terminate access to the user’s bitcoins. Two other popular hardware wallets include TREZOR and KeepKey.android tether monero обменять bitcoin redex ethereum node взлом bitcoin account bitcoin bitcoin co monero стоимость карты bitcoin
crococoin bitcoin bitcoin tor bitcoin обозреватель ethereum windows best bitcoin
cryptocurrency wallets bitcoin network лучшие bitcoin san bitcoin coin bitcoin ethereum coins in bitcoin
bitcoin london miner monero bitcoin word bank cryptocurrency masternode bitcoin token ethereum 15 bitcoin ethereum mist бесплатный bitcoin bitcoin it bitcoin script monaco cryptocurrency bitcoin вложения cryptocurrency перевод vps bitcoin майнинг ethereum cryptocurrency reddit видео bitcoin currency bitcoin mercado bitcoin bitcoin daily bitcoin xl de bitcoin plasma ethereum flappy bitcoin chvrches tether monero difficulty bitcoin segwit microsoft bitcoin map bitcoin bitcoin cc bitcoin xl spots cryptocurrency bear bitcoin ферма ethereum top cryptocurrency ethereum core bitcoin обмена q bitcoin tether mining earn bitcoin Benefits of Trading Forex With BitcoinOn 4 December 2013, Alan Greenspan referred to it as a 'bubble' as did George Soros on 25 January 2018. Warren Buffett called bitcoin a 'mirage' on 13 March 2014.simplewallet monero mindgate bitcoin bitcoin мерчант bitcoin биржи bitcoin stock daily bitcoin monero калькулятор monero nvidia покупка ethereum bitcoin half monero купить bitcoin loan настройка bitcoin автомат bitcoin bitcoin cards bitcoin purse bitcoin play rx470 monero monero logo
bitcoin block bitcoin анализ claymore monero jax bitcoin
анонимность bitcoin биткоин bitcoin ethereum логотип ethereum акции trader bitcoin отследить bitcoin qr bitcoin
dogecoin bitcoin хешрейт ethereum playstation bitcoin bitcoin signals bitcoin people алгоритм ethereum bitcoin usb bitcoin баланс bitcoin blue bitcoin nachrichten bitcoin plus
cryptocurrency calendar
bitcoin часы monero график ethereum logo bitcoin nachrichten
exchanges bitcoin асик ethereum plus500 bitcoin bitcoin valet ethereum биткоин ethereum solidity
видео bitcoin bitcoin scan ethereum прогнозы bitcoin сегодня monero калькулятор лотерея bitcoin пул bitcoin remix ethereum bitcoin развод ethereum wiki bitcoin перевод калькулятор monero js bitcoin bitcoin количество компания bitcoin bitcoin автосерфинг ethereum stratum wifi tether ethereum habrahabr ethereum habrahabr bitcoin betting And, the number of bitcoins awarded as a reward for solving the puzzle will decrease. It’s 6.25 now, but it halves every four years or so (the next one is expected in 2024). The value of bitcoin relative to cost of electricity and hardware could go up over the next few years to partially compensate for this reduction, but it’s not certain.bitcoin king bitcoin ebay тинькофф bitcoin
сайте bitcoin bitcoin основы bitcoin convert ethereum charts bitcoin poloniex bitcoin капитализация hack bitcoin monero 1070 майнеры monero bitcoin withdrawal bitcoin flip neo cryptocurrency пулы monero ethereum addresses bitcoin проверить tinkoff bitcoin bitcoin location loan bitcoin
bitcoin multiply trust bitcoin форекс bitcoin rinkeby ethereum
skrill bitcoin bitcoin php bitcoin уязвимости monero price ico monero fields bitcoin скачать tether
boom bitcoin
bitcoin rpg vpn bitcoin site bitcoin
ethereum 4pda bitcoin luxury bitcoin get bitcoin tor ethereum info bitcoin farm отзывы ethereum maps bitcoin bitcoin rub bitcoin заработать ethereum alliance исходники bitcoin supernova ethereum cryptocurrency wallets bitcoin 4 double bitcoin
bitcoin ru фермы bitcoin bitcoin часы bitcoin nachrichten geth ethereum рулетка bitcoin view bitcoin bitcoin reserve us bitcoin bitcoin timer bitcoin казахстан video bitcoin market bitcoin mt5 bitcoin
